The Egyptian Calendar System

The calendar system of ancient Egypt is unique to both the cosmology of the Egyptians and their religion. Unlike the modern Julian calendar system, with it's 365 days to a year, the Egyptians followed a calendar system of 360 days, with three seasons, each made up of 4 months, with thirty days in each month. The seasons of the Egyptians corresponded with the cycles of the Nile, and were known as Inundation (pronounced akhet which lasted from June 21st to October 21st), Emergence (pronounced proyet which lasted from October 21st to February 21st), and Summer (pronounced shomu which lasted from February 21st to June 21st).

The beginning of the year, also called "the opening of the year", was marked by the emergence of the star Sirius, in the constellation of Canis Major. The constellation emerged roughly on June 21st., and was called "the going up of the goddess Sothis". The star was visible just before sunrise, and is still one of the brightest stars in the sky, located to the lower left of Orion and taking the form of the dogs nose in the constellation Canis Major.

Though the Egyptians did have a 360 day calendar, in a literal sense they did have a 365 day calendar system. The beginning of the year was marked by the addition of five additional days, known as "the yearly five days". These additional five days, were times of great feasting and celebration for the Egyptians, and it was not uncommon for the Egyptians to rituals, and other celebratory dealings on these days. The Egyptian calendar also took on other important functions within Egyptian life specifically in dealing with the astrology of the people.

Differences in Genders

The life of an ancient Egyptian was short and difficult. Newborn children were not likely to survive their first year. The infant mortality rate was extremely high, possibly around 60-70%, and the mortality rate for women in childbirth was also extremely high. Children then were seen as a special blessing from the gods if they survived their first year.

After about the age of 5, boys and girls were separated in their learning experiences. Boys from wealthy families went to school. Boys from poor families began helping with the men's jobs in the fields or whatever other occupation their father happened to hold. A boy's education lasted the child was between 12 and 16 at which time they were considered grown and could begin to work for themselves. This would be the earliest age for men to marry, but normally they were between 17-20 years of age when they took their first wife. Men could take more than one wife, but had to be able to support each of them and their children. As a result, this was usually done only by the very wealthy. Most men then continued to work until they died, the average life span was approximately 30 years of age for a poorer working man. Making it past the age of 40 was seen as a special blessing and those who did so were rewarded. Men were granted a stipend by the government consisting of grain and vegetables each year. This ration was smaller than what he would have earned had he continued to work but it was enough to keep him alive.

Girls lives were much different than boys. Their entire life was centered around the home and family. At age 4, girls would begin to learn from their mothers how to maintain the house . They would learn how to sew, make foods, and keep house. The hours spent doing domestic chores were much longer than the educational hours of boys. Cloth had to be made and sewed into pieces of clothing, the fields planted and tended, food prepared, and countless other household chores. Girls were expected to marry after they began menstruating around the age of 12 or 13, although there is evidence of girls marrying as young as 8 or 9 years of age. They were also excepted to have a child within the first year of marriage. Pregnancy was a revered condition in ancient Egypt and even if a girl wasn't married, her pregnancy was celebrated. Women's lives were also relatively short with an average of 30 years for poor women and slightly more for women from richer families. Female retirement was different from men's, however. Women were to be taken care of by their sons. If a women had no sons she was to be taken care of by her daughter and son-in-law, but this was rare and occurred only if the daughter was now part of a wealthier family. It was more likely that these old women would be forced to live as beggars.

References:

http://library.thinkquest.org/J0111229/team1/life.htm

http://www.sptimes.com.htm

http://www.touregypt.net/magazine/mag11012000/magf1.htm

http://www.library.cornell.edu/colldev/mideast/womneg.htm

Geography and Agriculture

The geography of Egypt is deeply important in understanding why the Egyptians centered their lives around the Nile. Both before and during the use of canal irrigation in Egypt, the Nile Valley could be separated into two parts, the River Basin or the flat alluvial (or black land soil), and the Red Land or red desert land. The River basin of the Nile was in sharp contrast to the rest of the land of Egypt and was rich with wild life and water fowl, depending on the waxing and waning cycles of the Nile. In contrast, the red desert was a flat dry area which was devoid of most life and water, regardless of any seasonal cycle.

The Nile in it's natural state goes through periods of inundation and relinquishment. The inundation of the Nile-a slightly unpredictable event- was the time of greatest fertility for Egypt. As the banks rose, the water would fill the man-made canals and canal basins and would water the crops for the coming year. However, if the inundation was even twenty inches above or below normal, it could have massive consequences upon the Egyptian agricultural economy. Even with this variability, the Egyptians were able to easily grow tree crops and vegetable gardens in the lower part of the Nile Valley, while at higher elevations, usually near levees, the Nile Valley was sparsely planted.

Agricultural crops were not the mainstay of the ancient Egyptian diet. Rather, the Nile supplied a constant influx of fish which were cultivated year around. In addition to fish, water fowl and cattle were also kept by the Egyptians. Flocks of geese were raised from the earliest times and supplied eggs, meat and fat. However, the domestic fowl didn't make its appearance until Ramesside times, and then in only very isolated places. The Egyptian farmers, in their early experimental phase, also tried to domesticate other animals such as hyenas, gazelles and cranes but gave up after the Old Kingdom. Cattle were also part of the staple diet of the Egyptians, suggesting that grazing land was available for the Egyptians during the times when the Nile receded. However, during the inundation, cattle were brought to the higher levels of the flood plain area and were often fed the grains harvested from the previous year.

The Egyptian diet was by no means limited to tree crops and vegetables, nor was it limited to an animal or fish diet. The Egyptians cultivated barley, emmer wheat, beans, chickpeas, flax, and other types of vegetables. In addition, the cultivation of grains was not entirely for consumption. One of the most prized products of the Nile and of Egyptian agriculture was oil. Oil was customarily used as a payment to workmen employed by the state, and depending on the type, was highly prized. The most common oil (kiki) was obtained from the castor oil plant. Sesame oil from the New Kingdom was also cultivated and was highly prized during the later Hellenistic Period.

Egyptian Astronomy

The Ancient Egyptians had a limited knowledge of astronomy. Part of the reason for this is that their geometry was limited, and did not allow for complicated mathematical computations. Evidence of Ancient Egyptian disinterest in astronomy is also evident in the number of constellations recognized by Ancient Egyptians. At 1100 BC, Amenhope created a catalogue of the universe in which only five constellations are recognized. They also listed 36 groups of stars called decans. These decans allowed them to tell time at night because the decans will rise 40 minutes later each night. Theoretically, there were 18 decans, however, due to dusk and twilight only twelve were taken into account when reckoning time at night. Since winter is longer than summer the first and last decans were assigned longer hours. Tables to help make these computations have been found on the inside of coffin lids. The columns in the tables cover a year at ten day intervals. The decans are placed in the order in which they arise and in the next column, the second decan becomes the first and so on.

Astronomy was also used in positioning the pyramids. They are aligned very accurately, the eastern and western sides run almost due north and the southern and northern sides run almost due west. The pyramids were probably originally aligned by finding north or south, and then using the midpoint as east or west. This is because it is possible to find north and south by watching stars rise and set. However, the possible processes are all long and complicated. So after north and south were found, the Egyptians could look for a star that rose either due East or due West and then use that as a starting point rather than the North South starting point. This would result in the pyramids being more accurately aligned with the East and West, which they are, and all of the errors in alignment would run clockwise, which they do. This is because of precession of the poles which is very difficult to view, and the Ancient Egyptians did not know about. This theory is further substantiated by the fact that the star B Scorpii’s rising-directions match with the alignment of the pyramids on the dates at which they were built.

Ancient Egyptians also used astronomy in their calendars. There life revolved the annual flooding of the Nile. This resulted in three seasons, the flooding, the subsistence of the river, and harvesting. These seasons were divided into four lunar months. However, lunar months are not long enough to allow twelve to make a full year. This made the addition of a fifth month necessary. This was done by requiring the Sirius rise in the twelfth month because Sirius reappears around the time when the waters of the Nile flood. Whenever Sirius arose late in the twelfth month a thirteenth month was added. This calendar was fine for religious festivities, but when Egypt developed into a highly organized society, the calendar needed to be more precise. Someone realized that there are about 365 days in a year and proposed a calendar of twelve months with 30 days each, with five days added to the end of it. However, since a year is a few hours more than 365 days this new administrative calendar soon did not match the seasonal calendar.

Bibliography

The Cambridge Illustrated History of Astronomy. Michael Hoskin, ed. Cambridge University Press,1997.

Springer-Verlag and Hugh, Thurston. Early Astronomy, New York, Inc. 1994

Egyptian Astrology

Most of our understanding of Egyptian astrology is contained within the Cairo Calendar, which consists of a listing of all the days of an Egyptian year. The listings within the calendar all take the same form and can be broken up into three parts: I, the type of day (favorable, unfavorable etc), II, a mythological event which may make a particular day more favorable or unfavorable, III, and a prescribed behavior associated with that day. Unlike modern astrology as found within newspapers, where one can choose whether to follow the advice there in or not, the Egyptians strictly adhered to what an astrologer would advise. As is evidenced by the papyrus of the Cairo Calendar, on days where there were adverse or favorable conditions, if the astrologers told a person not to go outside, not to bathe, or to eat fish on a particular day, such advice was taken very literally and seriously.

Some of the most interesting and misunderstood information about the Ancient Egyptians concerns their calendarical and astrological system. Of the greatest fallacy about Ancient Egypt and it's belief in astrology concerns the supposed worship of animals. The Egyptians did not worship animals, rather the Egyptians according to an animals astrological significance, behaved in certain ritualistic ways toward certain animals on certain days. For example, as is evidenced by the papyrus Cairo Calendar, during the season of Emergence, it was the advisement of the Seers (within the priestly caste), and the omens of certain animals they saw, which devised whether a specific date would be favorable or unfavorable.

The basis for deciding whether a date was favorable or unfavorable was based upon a belief in possession of good or evil spirits, and upon a mythological ascription to the gods. Simply, an animal was not ritually revered because it was an animal, but rather because it had the ability to become possessed, and therefore could cause harm or help to any individual near them. It was also conceived of that certain gods could on specific days take the form of specific animals. Hence on certain days, it was more likely for a specific type of animal to become possessed by a spirit or god than on other days. The rituals that the Egyptians partook of to keep away evil spirits from possessing an animal consisted of sacrifice to magic, however, it was the seers and the astrologers who guided many of the Egyptians and their daily routines. Hence, the origin of Egyptians worshipping animals, has more to do with the rituals to displace evil spirits, and their astrological system, more so than it does to actually worshipping animals.

Lives of Non-Royal Women

Women in Egypt were expected to marry around age twelve. Egyptian culture was Matrilineal and Patrilocal. Marriage was a secular activity and was regulated by custom rather than law. Instead of a marriage contract, men and women drew up property contracts at the time of marriage in the event of death or divorce. The woman then traveled to the home of her new husband.

In the home, women were responsible for the day-to-day operations and decisions. Women did (and needed to) have the same legal rights and status under the law as men who were gone from the home much of the time due to seasonal projects or warfare. The division of labor within a household evolved from environmental conditions. The men did very physical labor in the hot sun, and women labored inside or in the shade. Women attended to the household's gardens and orchards. There were no formal schools for girls, so mothers educated their daughters in the home. Women did attend professional schools, such as the school of medicine at Heliopolis and the woman's school at Sais, to learn to become doctors.

Women in Egypt were free to seek employment outside the home. Many women worked as musicians or dancers in the temples and during festivals. Wealthier households employed women as maids or nannies, and sometimes professional mourners for funerals. Women who had the time and resources would operate a small business out of their home, such as linen or perfume manufacturing. These activities could greatly increase household income, as these items were much in demand for funeral rights. Professional opportunities for women included physician or midwife, director of dance or singing troupes, and overseer. The women who became doctors mostly attended to other women as gynecologists. Their skills were such that they performed cesarean sections and surgically removed cancerous breasts.

Legal rights, responsibilities, and status were divided along class lines rather than gender lines. Within a given class, men and women had the same rights. Women were free to buy and sell property, enter and execute contracts, and file lawsuits. A woman could acquire possessions, property, and debt separate from her husband through labor or inheritance. A woman was entitled to inherit one third of their joint property on the death of her husband, the remaining estate was divided between the surviving children and siblings of the dead man.

Women were equally accountable under the law. A woman who was convicted of a capital crime in a court of law would be executed, but only after the court determined that the woman was not pregnant. If such a woman was found to be pregnant, her execution was stayed until she could give birth to the child. Then she was executed.

References:

Wilkinson, J. G. (1988) The Ancient Egyptians. New York, NY: Crescent Books

Trigger, B.G., Kemp, B.J., O'Connor, D., Lloyd, A. (1983) Ancient Egypt. London: Cambridge University Press

Jones, C. (1998) 1001 Things Everyone Should Know About Woman's History. New York, NY: Doubleday

http://www.csd.k12.wi.us/EGYWOMEN.HTM

http://www.umich.edu/~kelseydb/Exhibits/WomenandGender/power.html

Ancient Egyptian Medicine

The Egyptians were advanced medical practitioners for their time. They were masters of human anatomy and healing mostly due to the extensive mummification ceremonies. This involved removing most of the internal organs including the brain, lungs, pancreas, liver, spleen, heart and intestine. The Egyptians had (and this is an understatement) a basic knowledge of organ functions within the human body (save for the brain and heart which they thought had opposite functions). This knowledge of anatomy, as well as (in the later dynasties) the later crossover of knowledge between the Greeks and other culture areas, led to an extensive knowledge of the functioning of the organs, and branched into many other medical practices. Further, it was not uncommon in both early and later dynasties for scholars from ancient Greece and other parts of the Mediterranean to study the medical practitioners of Ancient Egypt. Of the most notable of these traveling scholars was, Herodotus and Pliny, both Greek scholars, whose contribution to the ancient and modern medical records, reached from the time of Ancient Egypt and into the modern era.

The practices of Egyptian medical practitioners ranged from embalming to faith healing to surgery and autopsy. The use of autopsy came through the extensive embalming practices of the Egyptians, as it was not unlikely for an embalmer to examine the body for a cause of the illness which caused death. The use of surgery also evolved from a knowledge of the basic anatomy and embalming practices of the Egyptians. From such careful observations made by the early medical practitioners of Egypt, healing practices began to center upon both the religious rituals and the lives of the ancient Egyptians.

The prescription for a healthy life, (which was almost always given by a member of the priestly caste) meant that an individual undertook the stringent and regular purification rituals (which included much bathing, and often times shaving one's head and body hair), and maintained their dietary restrictions against raw fish and other animals considered unclean to eat. Also, and in addition to a purified lifestyle, it was not uncommon for the Egyptians to undergo dream analysis to find a cure or cause for illness, as well as to ask for a priest to aid them with magic. This obviously portrays that religious magical rites and purificatory rites were intertwined in the healing process as well as in creating a proper lifestyle.

Anubis god of healers and embalmers.

Though Egyptian medical practices by no means could rival that of the present day physicians, Egyptian healers engaged in surgery, prescriptive, and many other healing practices still found today. Among the curatives used by the Egyptians were all types of plant (herbs and other plants), animal (all parts nearly) and mineral compounds. The use of these compounds led to an extensive compendium of curative recipes, some still available today. For example, yeast was recognized for its healing qualities and was applied to leg ulcers and swellings. Yeast's were also taken internally for digestive disorders and were an effective cure for ulcers.

Though the Egyptians were effective healers, they did not have a clear knowledge of cellular biology or of germ theory, so it would be inappropriate to attribute the use of Yeast's as an antibiotic; as the curative effects behind the use of antibiotics were not known until well into modern times. Yet one must admire the ingenuity of the Egyptians, which undoubtedly has it's place within the compendium of human medical history. The largest of these medicinal compendiums was compiled by Hermes (a healer of Greek origin who studied in Egypt), and consisted of six books. The first of these six books was directly related to anatomy, the rest served as a book of physic, and as apothecaries. Though Hermes was not the first to compile much of the information about Egyptian medical practices, beginning early on with the pharaoh Athothes (the second king of Egypt), the Egyptians are credited with being the first to use and record advanced medical practices.

Ancient Egyptian Games

Ancient Egypt had games of all kinds, some for fun and entertainment and the others for fitness. Samples of these games have been found in drawings located in the tombs at Saqqara, plus many others. These pyramids were built nearly 2600b.c.e. and believe it or not we still play some of these games to this day. As well as pictures, board games have also been found in tombs from the same time period. Many of the fitness type games depicted in paintings are of common games such as hockey, which used long palm tree branches for sticks and a puck made from stuffed papyrus in between two pieces of leather. There are also pictures of various types of games that use handballs.

Various types of board games have been discovered such as Dogs and Jackals, Senet or Seega, and others such as 20-squares a similar type of game called 30 and 50 squares. Dogs and Jackals games and pieces have been found in tomb of Reny-Seneb. It’s board was made of wood, ebony and ivory and shaped like a piece of furniture and roughly measuring 15x10cm. It had 4 animal carved legs and the board was made of ivory with a palm tree carved into it with fifty five holes. There were drawers that held the ebony pawns that looked like a jackal and a dog’s head on a stick. Three coins were used to determine movements of the pieces on the board and the first person with all pieces at the end won the game.

Senet is another board game that has been found. One of these games was found in the tomb of Hesy along with painting of it and how to play. The rules of this game were very complex. It consisted of a board with 30 holes, 3 rows and 10 columns. Most of the games used 7 pawns, sticks or knucklebones for each of the two players but some only had 5. During the New Kingdom, the game of Senet had acquired a religious and magical meaning which symbolized the passage of the deceased through the netherworld with his resurrection dependant upon his/her ability to win the game. Since boards games of all quality have been discovered it is needless to say that the games were played by all classes of people in Ancient Egypt.

Bibliography

The Game of Senent, and, Dogs and Jackals by Catherine Soubeyrand
www.gamecabinet.com

Ancient Egyptian Sports
www.sis.gov.eg/egyptinf/history/html/sport001.htm

Games of Egypt
www.ipl.org/youth/cquest/middle-east/eggames.html

Genetic Archaeology

n the last 50 years archaeologists have been looking through old relics to try to tell the story of different peoples, now they are starting to use the people themselves. They are using mummified corpses and soft tissue from dead people and animals from places like Egypt. The tool they use from them is DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid), the scientist extract DNA molecules from soft preserved tissue and then using a PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction) they duplicate the DNA up to several million times which then yields plenty for analysis. This was the first breakthrough, in 1989 research groups from England, Japan; France successfully removed DNA from preserved teeth, bones and hard tissue.

These findings can ultimately help in determining the genealogy of the Egyptian Kings and Queens because it is now possible to extract some of the major components of the makeup of these people. They can tell from the DNA of the Kings and Queens the possible lineage’s they possess. This means that maybe they can find out if one of these people was related to another and how they were. Because there was allot of intermarrying going on between brothers and sisters and some of the offspring will have the same DNA sequence which will then tell scientists who some of the unknown mummies are that were found in tombs along with others.

This will not only be useful in determining the lineage’s among kings and queens but it will also tell us about the commoners of the time, such as those that were found in a cemetery at Fag el Gamous in Fayum. They found multiple burials in a single grave, often two adults and one or more children or several children buried with a single adult. Up until now we would not know what these people died from but now with this new way of getting into their past it is possible to gage what type of diseases were present in their era and if they were possibly killed by them.

So far from these people they have determined that tuberculosis was present in this population, and it is likely that diseases such as cholera and malaria were present in that area. They were able to find this because it was possible to recover DNA fragments from pathogenic bacteria that were present in the remaining tissue.

The questions about Egypt are fascinating and with help from new advances in technology and science and medicine it will be possible to answer some of them and hopefully to unlock some of their secrets.

Hieroglyphic Text Processing Programs

Hieroglyphic text processing programs allows script of hieroglyphics to be studied, analyzed, and edited by a computer. Two hieroglyphic text-processing programs are Glyph for Windows and MacScribe.

Glyph for Windows

Glyph for Windows is a hieroglyphic text-processing program designed for IBM-compatible computers. The program runs along with Microsoft Windows. With this program, hieroglyphic scripts can be easily processed and print out in sharp quality by any kind of printer, although laser printers produce the most fluent lines of hieroglyphics. Glyph for Windows looks similar to many Windows applications, with functions and options can be found in pulldown menus, dialog boxes, and hot keys.

Hieroglyphics are entered in the main window in code form. The codes are Gardiner numbers or the glyphs' phonetic value combined with codes that signify the position of the glyph. While code is entered into the main window, a bar on the bottom of the window shows the represented hieroglyphic on each respective line. The Egyptologist can easily edit or change codes that may be incorrect. The entire document can be viewed in hieroglyphic form in a separate pop-up window.

Glyph for Windows designed user-friendly for easy use by the most traditional Egyptologist. Glyph for Windows is able to produce lines or columns of text, both from left-to-right and from right-to-left. The program can process any sign, from simple groupings to complex. Signs can be shaded to represent damaged or partly lost signs. Also the program has the capability of creating cartouches, Serekhs and Hwt-enclosures.

MacScribe

MacScribe offers two major features. First, MacScribe is designed to work with Macintosh computers. Also, it allows the user to process hieroglyphics using internationally accepted hieroglyphic computer-encoding standards. Like Glyph for Windows, hieroglyphs can be entered using the signs' Gardiner number or phonetic value. However, they can also be entered by choosing them from a window using a mouse click.

Using MacScribe a sign can be rotated or inverted. It allows text to be formatted in lines or columns or from right-to-left or left-to-right. The codes for the hieroglyphics are hidden. Also, text can be export to other applications and programs. MacScribe is capable of using any Macintosh hieroglyphic font.

Bibliography

Glyph for Windows: http://www.ccer.ggl.ruu.nl/ccer/winglyph.HTML

MacScribe: http://www.ccer.ggl.ruu.nl/ccer/maCscrib.HTML

Cats in Ancient Egypt

Animal worship in ancient Egypt is part of the culture of daily life of Egyptians. Animals of every kind were respected and revered, as they were in close contact with deities and gods that the average Egyptian could not reach.

The cat in ancient Egypt, or miw (to see), was a sacred and respected beast. These small companions fascinated the Egyptians, and were venerated by all. It was in Egypt that the cat was first domesticated 4,000 years ago and where they were held in the most admiration and respect. There is evidence of wild felines around the banks of Egypt, but it was not until around 2000 BCE that the fully domesticated cat was brought into the houses of Egyptians.

The first domesticated Egyptian cats in Egypt were more than likely used for warding off the common asp and other snakes, and the typical chasers of rodents. Slowly though, the cat became more to the Egyptians than just a normal animal, the cat became a god.

During the New Kingdom (1540 to 1069 BC), there were many tomb scenes that started showing cats as part of everyday life. The ancient Egyptians took their cats on hunting excursions instead of dogs, The most popular excursions being the marshes where cats may have been trained to retrieve fowl and fish. Another very common scene in tomb paintings was the picturing of a cat seated underneath a woman's chair. Children had become known in their family as Mit or Miut, showing great affection not only for the child but for the cat as well. Statues of cats were placed outside the house to protect the inhabitants and to ward off evil spirits. This showed scientists that the cat had become an integral part of the ancient Egyptian family life.

Mafdet was the first Egyptian feline deity, sometimes depicted as a lynx, but the most famous cat goddesses in the world, first revered by the ancient Egyptians were Bastet (also known as Bast, Pasch, Ubasti) and the lion-headed Sekhmet.

Bastet had the roles of fertility, protector of children and the protector of all cats. Bastet became so popular infact that she became a household goddess. This goddess was called Bastet when in full cat form, and Bast when only having the head of one and the body of a beautiful woman. Bastet's counterpart was the goddess Sekhmet who represented the cat goddess' destructive force. Sekhmet is known as the goddess of war and pestilence. Together, Bastet and Sekhmet represented the balance of the forces of nature in Egypt.

In Bubastis, or Tell Basta, the cats lived a lavish life as the `embodiment' of Bastet in her temples. Here they were served upon and taken care of until they passed away, and it was here that their bodies were mummified and given as offerings to Bastet. Bubastis contains the remains of over 300,000 cat mummies. Upon being inspected, some feline mummies had severe trauma to the head or neck, signifying that they were killed on purpose, perhaps to lower the growing population or for offerings for Bastet. Giza, Abydos, and Dendereh were also feline tomb cities other than Bubastis.

When a cat died their former owners and occupants of the house would go into deep mourning and shave their eyebrows as a sign of grief. People are not the only mummies in Egypt, as the cat was also mummified significantly. The process of feline mummification had six steps:

1. Removal of organs
2. Body is stuffed with sand or packing material
3. Feline is placed in a sitting position
4. Body is wrapped tightly
5. Faces and designs are painted on wrappings with black ink
6. No chemicals, only natural dehydration

In the tombs of the cats were set bowls of milk along with mice and rats.

Cats were not only protected by almost every occupant of Egypt, but also by the law. So extreme infact was the devoutness of the Egyptian culture to the cat, that if a human killed a feline, either intentionally or unintentionally, that human was sentenced to death. Laws were set that also forbid the exportation of cats, though more often than not, many were smuggled to the neighboring Mediterranean countries. Documents state that armies sometimes were set out to recapture these cats from the foreign lands.

Herodotus stated a story once about a fire in a house in Egypt. The men from the house stood outside in a line to protect the cats from harm and danger. Another statement from Herodotus explains even greater the significance of the cat to Egypt. Herodotus begins with the Egyptians in war with Persia. The Persian general had decided to collect as many cats that his men could find or steal, knowing the great importance of the cat to Egypt. The soldiers then returned to the town of Pelusium and set the cats free on the battlefield. Horrified, the Egyptians surrendered the city to the Persians rather than harm the cats.

The cat held a powerful spot in the history of Egypt. While she protected his land and his people, she also protected the mystique that is and was the cat in ancient Egypt.

by Leah Marie Graham 2004

Resources

Ruiz, Ana. The Spirit of Ancient Egypt. New York; Algora Publishing, 2001

http://www.richeast.org/htwm/cats/cats.html

http://mcclungmuseum.utk.edu/research/renotes/rn-20txt.htm

Egyptian Mythology

Mythology is defined as a collection of interrelated stories of a given culture. Myths tend to describe the creation of the world and give a culture an understanding of the events of nature and the world around them. Myths are also generated to tell the story of the first people to inhabit the earth. These people are elevated to gods and goddesses, which usually associate them as having supernatural and special powers. Myths also express the values or beliefs of a culture, and every culture studied has their own myths distinctive to their group.

Ancient Egyptians tried to understand their place in the universe and their mythology centers itself on nature, the earth, sky, moon, sun, stars, and the Nile River. Heliopolis, the City of the Sun, is located in the ruins of Yunu in northeast Cairo. This is where the cosmic creation of Egyptian myth began. Ancient Egyptian mythology states that in the beginning of time everything began with Nu. Nu is the description of what the planet was before land appeared. Nu was a vast area of swirling watery chaos and as the floods receded the land appeared. The first god to appear out of this watery mess was Atum. This myth was probably created because of the large source of water from the Nile River. In one interpretation, Atum is credited with the fertile land that springs up when the water's of the Nile River recedes, because he was the first to arise out of the watery mess.

Atum emerged from Nu as the sun god at the beginning of time and is the creator of the world. Since Atum was all alone he chose to mate with his shadow. The god Atum was known as the `Great He-She', and a bisexual. The ancient Egyptians found this act acceptable, as they found all types of sexual orientations acceptable. Atum gave birth to two children by spitting out his son (Shu) and vomiting up is daughter (Tefnut). Shu represented the air and the principles of life and Tefnut represented rain and principles of order. The three remained in the watery chaos of Nu and after some time Atum was separated from his children. When they were finally reunited, Atum wept with tears of joy. When his tears hit the ground men grew and he then began to create the world. Shu and Tefnut later gave birth to Geb, the god of the earth in which the throne of the Pharaoh would be decided. Nut was also born from Tefnut and Shu as the Goddess of the sky, the separator between earth and Nu. Geb and Nut then gave birth to Osiris, Isis, Seth, and Nephthys. In ancient Egyptian mythology there is an established kinship of the gods and goddesses. Atum is known also as Khepri, the great scarab beetle, Ra-Harakhte, the winged-solar disk, Ra, the midday sun, Aten, the solar-disk, or Horus on the Horizon. By whatever name you call him Atum, is the one and only creator in the universe. The sun god Atum travels along Nut during the day and then is swallowed by Nut at night. At dawn it is seen as Nut giving birth to Atum as the sky opens up to the light.

One of the most famous Egyptian myths is the myth of Osiris. Osiris has been credited with many different titles, god of fertility, king of the dead, god of agriculture, and god of the underworld, controller of the Nile floods, and the rising and setting of the sun. All of these titles have one thing in common: life, death, and rebirth because the myth of Osiris is attributed to his life, murder, and eternal life after death. The myth of Osiris begins when he sets out to spread law and order across the land and to teach people how to farm. Because Osiris was a powerful king and popular with the people, his jealous brother lured him into a coffin and sealed his fate with molten lead. Seth then sent him down the Nile River in the coffin. Later the coffin washed ashore in Lebanon and a tree encased it. A king of Lebanon was impressed by the size of the tree and cut it down and put it in his palace.

Isis was the wife and sister to Osiris who gave birth to Horus and was the protector of the dead. When she received the news of Osiris's death, she knew the dead could not rest without a proper burial. Isis searched and found Osiris' body and brought it back to Egypt. Seth found this unacceptable and cut Osiris into many pieces and scattered them throughout Egypt. Isis set out again and had all the pieces she found made into wax duplicates. All the wax duplicates were placed in the temple to be worshipped. Isis preserved his body with linen bandages, used her magic and breathed life back into Osiris. Osiris then rose as a God-King and he chose to rule the underworld. This is where the roots of mummification and rebirth into the afterworld began.

Ancient Egyptian gods:

Amen (Amon): Amen has his origin in Thebes. He is known as Lord of Creation and Protector of the Poor and Weak. His name means �The Hidden One.� He is considered the father of all gods; thus he does not have a mother or father but is husband to Mut, the Great Mother. During the Middle Kingdom, Uast became the state capitol of Egypt and since Amen was the central god of Uast, he became the state god and was later combined with Ra (another creator god) to become Amen-Ra, and worshipped as the King of Gods. Egyptians represent him in art and statue as man or the sun. His sacred animals were the ram and the goose, which were bred and kept at all of his temples throughout Egypt.

Bastet: The Egyptian cat-headed goddess, Bastet was strictly a solar deity until the arrival of Greek influence on Egyptian society, when she became a lunar goddess due to the Greeks associating her with their Artemis. Dating from the 2nd Dynasty (roughly 2890-2686 BC), Bastet was originally portrayed as either a wild desert cat or as a lioness, and only became associated with the domesticated feline around 1000 BC. She was commonly paired with Sakhmet, the lion-headed goddess of Memphis, Wadjet, and Hathor. Bastet was the "Daughter of Ra", a designation that placed her in the same ranks as such goddesses as Maat and Tefnut. Additionally, Bastet was one of the "Eyes of Ra", the title of an "avenger" god who is sent out specifically to lay waste to the enemies of Egypt and her gods.

Geb: Geb was the �Father Earth� or the earth-god. He is said to live forever below his wife Nut, the goddess of the sky. He is the brother and husband of Nut and together they had five children. Geb's sign is the goose, which is thought, according to the mythological creation story, to be the form that the creator took on the day of creation. Geb is thought to be the first ruler of Kemet and some of the ancient king-lists have Geb and his immediate descendants as actual physical kings.

Horus (Heru, Haroeris, Harpocrates): Horus is the son of Isis and Osiris. When Osiris was killed by Set, Horus set out to avenge him. He is the god of the living and lord of the heavens. His name means �He who is above.� Horus is represented as a falcon or hawk-headed deity because of his status as god of the sky and horizon. There are several myths about the eye or eyes of Horus. One source says that Horus gave up his right eye in battle and that it represents strength, vigor and self-sacrifice. Another source simply says that one of his eyes represents the sun and the other represents the moon. During the time he was worshipped in Ancient Egypt, his cult-centers were Behdet in Lower Egypt, and Hierakonpolis and Edfu in Upper Egypt.

Ma'at (Maat): Ma'at was the goddess of truth, justice and harmony. Ra, the sun god, was her father. Offerings were often made of Ma'at to the gods by the pharaohs to show that they wanted to keep harmony and justice on the earth. Ma'at is represented as a woman with an ostrich feather on her head. A vizier, who was a high official in the government and advisor to the pharaohs, were often known as �priests of Ma'at�.

Nut (Nuit): Nut was the goddess of the sky. She created the casing over the earth with her body. She was the sister and wife of Geb, the god of the earth. Shu, the god of air, separated nut and Geb when he lifted Nut up to become the canopy over the earth. Ancient Egyptians believed that in the evenings, Nut would swallow Ra, the sun god, and in the mornings give birth to him. Nut appears as a goddess wearing a blue dress covered in stars.

Ptah: Ptah is the creator god of Memphis, the capital of the dual Kemetic for most of its history. Ptah is symbolized as a mummified man wearing a skullcap and holding the symbols of life, power, and stability in his arms. Ptah is sometimes seen as an abstract form of the self-created one, who effected creation through the actions of his heart and gave all things the breath of life with his tongue. Ptah represents the sun at the time when it begins to rise above the horizon and or right after it has risen. As early as the Second Dynasty, he is regarded as a creator god. He is the patron of painters, builders. architects, artists and sculptors. It was Ptah who built the boats for the souls of the dead to use in the afterlife. In the Book of the Dead we learn that he was a master architect, and responsible for building the framework of the universe. It was said that Ptah created the great metal plate that was the floor of heaven and the roof of the sky. He also constructed the supports that held it up. Some creation legends say that by speaking the names of all things, Ptah caused them to be.

Ra (Re): Another deity represented in human form with the head of a falcon, like Horus. Ra, like Amen, is also thought to be a god of creation. His cult-center is Heliopolis, where he is known as the sun god and supreme judge. Ra is also known as the father of kings and the most important gods. Followers of Ra believe that life on earth was created from the tears of Ra as he wept at the beauty of mankind and his creation. He is considered a living god during the day and a dead one at night. He is born at dawn as a small child, an adult in prime at midday and an old man at sunset. He dies at dark and is reborn again at next dawn.

Seth: Seth was the god of wind and storms and ruler of the deserts. He is seen as the one who brings chaos to Egypt and is the enemy of Osiris and Horus. Nephthys is the wife to Seth and sister to Osiris, Isis, and Seth. She is usually depicted as a protector of the dead. From Osiris and Isis comes Horus, the King of Egypt.

Tawaret (Thoeris, Taurt): Tawaret, or �The Great One�, is the goddess who protects women during their pregnancy and childbirth. Often temples were built to honor gods and goddesses but Tawaret was a goddess who was worshiped by ancient Egyptians in their own homes. Often an amulet of Tawaret was worn or at least kept in a person's home to keep them safe from evil spells or actions. Tawaret has the head of a hippopotamus and arms and legs of a lion. She has the back and tail of a crocodile and the breasts and stomach of a pregnant woman.

These are the gods with whom ancient Egyptians had a relationship for thousands of years. By careful study of the gods and the myths that surround them, we can develop a picture in our own minds of what the ancient Egyptians were like as emotional beings. We know what they did on an everyday basis. We know what kind of jobs they worked, how they ate, their medical technology, their government, and how they created their magnificent monuments. But within the hieroglyphs containing the myths of the gods we can learn what motivated the Egyptians spiritual lives. We can learn why they did the things that they did, what the purpose of the pyramids were, their relationship with the pharaoh, their burial practices and their belief in the afterlife. Maybe the ancient Egyptians knew something about the afterlife or the realm of the spirits that we don't know, or will never know, unless we take the time to understand their mythology as they understood it.

References

http://urbanlegends.about.com/library/faq/blfaq-mythology.htm

www.reshafim.org

www.geocities.com/Athens/Parthenon/ 2226/Egyptian/egypt.html

Brewer, Douglas J. and Teeter, Emily: Egypt and the Egyptians. University Press, Cambridge, 1999

El Mahdy, Christine: Mummies-Myth and Magic. Thames and Hudson Ltd. London 1989

Hart, George., Egyptian Myths (London, England: British Museum Press, 1990) 11

Thomas, Angela P. Egyptian Gods and Myths (London, England: Shire Publications Ltd., 1986).

Ancient Egyptian Glass Technology

Glass-making technology initially began in Egypt with the manufacture of small beads in the pre-dynastic era. There is little or no evidence of glass technology until the XVIII Dynasty. The technology was a result of the process of firing clay pots. The sand and slag utilized in making clay pots melted together to make glass. Early examples of glass manufacture were in the form of beads made from the glass nuggets. It was determined that when metal oxides were added to the glass nuggets, various color hues resulted. The foundattion for this technology may have been in the development of bronze technology, adding different elements to copper to make bronze. There is also early evidence for glass blowing.

Ancient Egyptian Garment Making

From its start in prehistoric Egypt, women were predominately in charge of textile manufacturing and garment making. Garment making was a household chore, but woman also worked for aristocrats in spinning and weaving shops. Every garment from the decorative dresses of queens and the elaborate, pleated kilts of the pharaohs to the simpler kilts and aprons of the common people were handmade by woman. The process of making garments is extensive even for the simplest of garment.

Most Egyptians wore garments made from linen. This type of fabric is light, airy, and allows freedom of movement, which are important characteristics because of the hot and sometimes humid climate of Egypt. The second choice of fabric is wool or cotton. Wool can be warm but it has natural oils that repel moisture. Ancient Egyptians also considered wool to be impure. Cotton is airy, but not as light as linen.

Linen is a fabric made from plant fibers. The plant fiber comes from flax plants that grow abundantly along the banks of the Nile. The flax plants are dried, combed, soaked, beaten, and dressed. The resulting fibers are then spun into thread. The thread is woven into linen fabric from which the garments are made.

The tools involved in garment making include knives (or scissors) and needles, both of these needed to be molded, shaped or craved. In predynastic times, knives were made out of stone and the needles were made from bones. However, during the Old Kingdom, they were both made out of copper. Then, in the Middle Kingdom, bronze replaced the copper. Knives and needles were molded. Surprisingly, the eyes of needles were not bored. They were "scratched out with a hard, pointed instrument, probably a stone." With these tools and linen, garments were fashioned to suit the needs of the people based on climate and the social status.

Ancient Egyptian Chariot Making

The Egyptians didn't invent the chariot but as things go they did improve upon the idea. To our knowledge, the first reported chariot comes from about 2000 B.C.E. in Mesopotamia. This is an interesting fact, but the truth is that it wouldn’t have been possibly if the wheel hadn’t been invented. It is thought that the creation of the wheel is that of a single unknown inventor of the Sumerian culture in Mesopotamia. It was invented sometime around 3500-3000 B.C.E. The chariot paved its way into the Egyptian culture around 1500 B.C.E. The Egyptian chariot was unique in that it was constructed to be handsome and light in weight. This was probably due to a lack of wood along the Nile River.

The chariots were better designed than their predecessor of the Assyrians was. The Egyptians designed the chariot with the human standing directly over the axle of the chariot. By accomplishing this there was less stress put on the horse(s) because the rider’s weight was distributed to the chariot than to the horse.

The design of the chariot of two wheels and were squeaky and creaked. Basically they were heard wherever they went. The Egyptians didn’t like this idea, and they lined the hubs and covered the axle with copper or bronze plates. The design of the chariot consisted of a number of new and unique ideas to make their chariot stand out. The hub was long and slender, and the spokes were light and nicely shaped. The fellies were one to and held by a spoke. The fellies, inserted in the spoke, were bent, shaped, and joined with a long lap. The tires were made of wood and were shaped in sections. They were attached to the wheel lashing made of rawhide. This lashing technique was unique in that they passed it through slots in the tire sections. The reasoning for this was to keep the lashing from coming in contact with the ground, thus extending its life by lessening the wear and tear.

A pole that is attached to a yoke pulls the chariots. The yoke is attached to the horses’ back by a saddle-pads using girths around the bellies to hold them in place. The Egyptian had two types of chariots, and according to the source the only difference seems to be in the wheels. The Egyptian war-chariot had six spokes while the carriage chariots had only four. The reasoning behind this difference is probably due to the extra support needed in the war-chariot based on the stress that can be put on them is higher than that of the carriage chariot.

Egypt Historical Places 1

Abu Simbel (The Temple of Ramesses II) (The Temple of Nefertari dedicated to Hathor) Not only are the two temples at Abu Simbel among the most magnificent monuments in the world but their removal and reconstruction was an historic event in itself. When the temples (280 km from Aswan) were threatened by submersion in Lake Nasser, due to the construction of the High Dam, the Egyptian Government secured the support of UNESCO and launched a world wide appeal. During the salvage operation which began in 1964 and continued until 1968, the two temples were dismantled and raised over 60 meters up the sandstone cliff where they had been built more than 3,000 years before. Here they were reassembled, in the exact same relationship to each other and the sun, and covered with an artificial mountain. Most of the joins in the stone have now been filled by antiquity experts, but inside the temples it is still possible to see where the blocks were cut. You can also go inside the man made dome and see an exhibition of photographs showing the different stages of the massive removal project. Abu Simbel was first reported by J. L. Burckhardt in 1813, when he came over the mountain and only saw the facade of the great temple as he was preparing to leave that area via the Nile. The two temples, that of Ramesses II primarily dedicated to Re-Harakhte, and that of his wife, Nefertari dedicated to Hathor, became a must see for Victorians visiting Egypt, even though it required a trip up the Nile, and often they were covered deeply in sand, as they were when Burckhardt found them. Abydos (Abtu) Location : Suhag, Egypt Situated on the West Bank of the Nile, 12 km south-east of Al-Ballyana, it was the chief center for worshipping the god Osiris. How to get there : By daily air conditioned trains, scheduled at regular hours. By private vehicles, taxis and tourist buses. For information and reservation contact the Upper Egypt Bus Company which organizes excursions to Al-Minya. Tel : +20-2-2609304/9297/8. Description On the west bank of the Nile, 90 miles (145 km) north of Luxor, lies the Temple of Abydos. Abydos is linked to the earliest dynasties recorded, and in 1993, the earliest known tomb was found here, along with some of the oldest hieroglyphics ever discovered. The Temple dates to around 3150 BC, and the records have provided scholars with much of what is known about the earliest periods of recorded history. This area, sacred to Osiris, was a very powerful location to those who believed in the next world. The ancient Egyptians said that at sunset, the area looked like a golden staircase leading to the afterlife, and thus many people wished to be buried here. It was here, too, that Osiris, after being killed by his brother Seth, returned to power. Seth had killed Osiris and scattered the pieces of his body all over Egypt. Osiris' wife and sister, Isis, gathered the pieces one by one, put them back together, and restored life to her husband. It was said that Abydos was where the final piece, his head, was buried, and so it was here that Osiris was brought back to life to become the judge of the dead and lord of the netherworld.

The Temple of Osiris The original Temple of Osiris was built by Seti I, who came to power 29 years after the collapse of the regime of Akhenaten. Seti wished to restore the beliefs in the traditional gods and so built this temple to show his devotion. The way leading into the temple had two courts and a pylon, which were built by Ramesses II. The way these courts and pylon were positioned gave the entrance the illusion of sloping upwards. Sadly, this entrance has been mostly destroyed. The front of the temple is now 12 rectangular pillars, covered with sacred images welcoming Osiris, Isis, and Horus. The first (outer) hypostyle hall was built by Ramesses, but the quality of the decorations on the columns are not as impressive as those found in the second (inner) hall, which Seti built. It is widely thought that Ramesses used the best craftsmen in building his own temple, but used lower quality workers on this temple after the death of Seti. Just beyond the second hall are the seven separate sanctuaries dedicated to Seti I, Osiris, Isis, Horus, Amen, Mut, and Khensu. Originally, seven doors led to the sanctuaries, but Ramesses, for reasons still unknown, had all but one covered over. When the temple was in use, each of the sanctuaries would have contained the god's barque (sacred boat), and would have had a stele placed in front of a false door. The sanctuaries were locked and only the high priests of each god could enter, as the Egyptians believed that the gods actually lived inside their sanctuaries. The sanctuaries are highly decorated with bas-relief paintings dedicated to the several gods of the temple. Many of the bas-reliefs in the sanctuaries still have their coloring, but the best decorations are the masterful unpainted moldings. One scene in Seti's sanctuary shows him being crowned by the goddess of Upper and Lower Egypt, but by far the most incredible paintings are the ones found in Osiris' sanctuary. The temple also possesses a King's Gallery, a room that lists all over its walls the names of the gods along with over 70 of Seti's predecessors (minus some omitted for political reasons such as Akhenaten and Hatsheosut), making it an invaluable resource for historians.

The Osirieon Through the rear door of the temple is the Osirieon, the only visible tomb at this site, which was built before the main temple. Much of the damage to the Osirieon has been from flooding, as it was built at water level, yet it is not much diminished. Red Aswan granite pillars, each weighing about a hundred tons apiece, support equally massive archways. This temple was built as a symbol of Seti's closeness to Osiris and contains a sarcophagus, though Seti was not buried here. Seti's actual tomb is in the Valley of the Kings in Luxor. This was a fairly common practice among many of the pharaohs, having "public" tombs in one location, but actually being buried in another. The Osirieon is currently inaccessible because of the rising sand and the flooding that has occurred. Excavation has been done on the south side passage, which revealed texts from The Book of the Gates and The Book of What is in the Duat. This section was begun by Seti and finished by his grandson, Merneptah. It is a complete tomb structure, all ready to receive the mummy of a king, yet it does not appear ever to have been used so. Abydos does have a reputation for these "false tombs" or cenotaphs. Some theorists state that Abydos does not even have a single actual tomb in it, but that all the dead who have tombs at Abydos are actually buried elsewhere. The cemeteries of northern Saqqara certainly have a great number of royal mastabas, of which many have been linked to the Archaic rulers. It is very possible that actual burials of kings and high-ranking officials were carried out at Saqqara, which is near Memphis, the new court city. Thus the monuments at Abydos are precisely that : monuments. It is fairly simple to see why this might be so. The rulers would no doubt have a desire to be buried near the place they ruled, but Abydos was also a powerful site because of its religious ties, as well as being deep in the ancient homelands. Thus, the rulers arranged to have themselves "buried" in both places. The body at Saqqara or another site, and a cenotaph built at Abydos. Of course, the reverse could be true, with Abydos as the true burial site and all the tombs at Saqqara are cenotaphs. Or perhaps the explanation involves a little bit of both, with some rulers desiring to be buried near Memphis, and others at Abydos, but each ruler building two tombs, one in each location. It would be rather unusual for the rulers to remain as visible as possible in their new capital during life, and then at death, simply passing from view. Thus much of the current consensus is that Saqqara is the actual burial site and that Abydos is the site of the royal monuments. The tombs at Saqqara as a whole are larger and more luxurious than those at Abydos (with the exception of the valley "temples" of Abydos which are immense and have no known Saqqaran counterparts), suggesting that Saqqara is the true burial site.

Egypt Historical Places

Visit the most historical places of Egypt and see an exhibition of photographs showing the different historical places.

I'll write little description about every place of this later.

01. Abu Simbel( Ramesses II, Nefertari Temples)
02. Abydos (Abtu)
03. Temple of Osiris
04. The Osirieon
05. Temple of Ramesses II
06. Colossi of Memnon
07. Citadel of Qaitbey
08. Edfu
09. Esna
10. Karnak
11. Precinct of Montu
12. Precinct of Mut
13. Karnak, Temple of Amun-Ra
14. Akhenaten Temples
15. Plant Island, Gizirat al-Nabatat,
Botanical Island)
16. Philae Temple
17. St. Catherine's Monastery
18. Catacombs of Kom es-Shouqafa
19. Vestibule and Central Tomb Chamber
20. Graeco-Roman Museum
21. High Dam
22. Montazah Complex
23. Nubia Museum
24. Roman Theater (Kom Al-Dikka)
25. Temple Of Dandara
26. Temple of Kom-ombo
27. Temple of Luxor
28. Sun Temple of Ramesses II
29. Nefertari's Temple of Hathor
(Abu Simbel - Small Temple)
30. The Great Pyramids & Sphinx
31. The Egyptian museum
32. The Citadel
33. The Unfinished Obelisk
34. Valley of the Kings
35. Valley of the Queens

Ancient Egypt

Ancient Egypt was a civilization in eastern North Africa concentrated along the middle to lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now the modern nation of Egypt. The civilization began around 3150 BC with the political unification of Upper and Lower Egypt under the first pharaoh, and it developed over the next three millennia.

Its history occurred in a series of stable periods, known as kingdoms, separated by periods of relative instability known as Intermediate Periods. After the end of the last kingdom, known as the New Kingdom, the civilization of ancient Egypt entered a period of slow, steady decline, during which Egypt was conquered by a succession of foreign powers. The rule of the pharaohs officially ended in 31 BC when the early Roman Empire conquered Egypt and made it a province.

The civilization of ancient Egypt thrived from its adaptation to the conditions of the Nile River Valley. Controlled irrigation of the fertile valley produced surplus crops, which fueled social development and culture. With resources to spare, the administration sponsored mineral exploitation of the valley and surrounding desert regions, the early development of an independent writing system, the organization of collective construction and agricultural projects, trade with surrounding regions, and a military that defeated foreign enemies and asserted Egyptian dominance. Motivating and organizing these activities was a bureaucracy of elite scribes, religious leaders, and administrators under the control of a divine pharaoh who ensured the cooperation and unity of the Egyptian people through an elaborate system of religious beliefs.

The many achievements of the ancient Egyptians included a system of mathematics, quarrying, surveying and construction techniques that facilitated the building of monumental pyramids, temples and obelisks, faience and glass technology, a practical and effective system of medicine, new forms of literature, irrigation systems and agricultural production techniques, and the earliest known peace treaty.

Egypt left a lasting legacy: art and architecture were copied and antiquities paraded around the world, and monumental ruins have inspired the imaginations of tourists and writers for centuries. A newfound respect for antiquities and excavations in the early modern period led to the scientific investigation of Egyptian civilization and a greater appreciation of its cultural legacy for Egypt and the world.

The History of Egypt

Egypt proudly boasts of being the seat of one of the most remarkable and ancient civilizations of the world as early as 5000 years ago. Flourishing over an extended period of around 3000 years, this civilization is also reported to be one of the longest that existed on this earth. Egypt is the gift of river Nile. The plentiful water of this mysterious river nurtured this wonderful civilization. Egypt holds an interesting history of over 6000 years. The Pyramids, the Sphinx and several historical tombs and monuments spread over the land bear testimony to its rich heritage and are a major source of attraction to the entire world for all times. Located between Africa and the Middle East, Egypt is one of the most prominent among the flourishing Arab States.

The history of Egypt can be traced down from 3300 BC. By this time, Egyptians had written symbols to record their history. In 3100 BC, the Pharaoh, King Menes created Egypt by uniting what were called the upper Egypt and the lower Egypt with Memphis as the capital in the north and Abydos as the capital in the south. He was the one who inaugurated what was called the Ancient Empire (3200-2270 BC). Accomplished and strong rulers like Ramses II and Akhnaton, introduction of calendar, the popular sun-god Re, Egyptian chariots and horses were the hallmarks of the period extending till the early centuries of BC. Slowly, the authority of the rulers diminished and Egypt came under the control of foreign princes.

After the rise and fall of several dynasties and the rule of priests for about four hundred years, Alexander the Great easily took over Egypt in 332 BC. Though Alexander did not spend much time in Egypt, Alexandria became his capital where he was buried later. Alexandria flourished as a center of trade and culture.

After Alexander, the empire was divided among his generals. This Greek dynasty ended with Cleopatra VII. Following this till 30 BC, Egypt was reigned by Ptolemies. Eventually Egypt became a province of Rome until 642 AD. During this period, Alexandria housed the famous Catechetical School, which produced the early fathers of the Church. 642 AD witnessed the beginning of Arab and Islamic epoch in Egypt. A series of Arab rulers governed Egypt and were followed by Mamlukes who ruled Egypt from 1250 to 1517 AD who were eventually followed by the Ottomans.

Napoleon Bonaparte’s arrival in 1798 opened a new phase in the history of Egypt. His expedition helped uncover the mysteries of the ancient culture of Egypt besides deciphering of the ancient script. After the French left Egypt, Mohamed Ali, an officer in the Ottoman army rose to power ruling from 1805 to 1849. He championed the cause of modernizing Egypt and was rightly called the father of modern Egypt. His task was continued by Khedive Ismail from 1863. During his reign, the Suez Canal was inaugurated in 1869.

In 1882, the British troops landed in Alexandria marking the British occupation of the land that lasted for 74 years. Mustafa Kamel, Sa'ad Zaghloul, Mustafa El Nahas and several other prominent leaders emerged during this time striving to achieve two national objectives namely independence and constitutional reform. Egypt attained complete independence in 1922. With the framing of new constitution, Sa'ad Zaghloul formed the first government of Egypt.

After the Palestine war, the wide spread economic and social frustration led to the emergence of Free Officers Movement organized by a group of young officers. In 1952, Gamal Abd El-Nasser of the FOM seized the power through a bloodless revolution.
Egypt was declared a Republic in 1953 with Mohamad Naguib as the first President. In 1954 Nasser succeeded him as the second president. Significant economic, agricultural and social reforms marked the efficiency of Nasser's presidency. Following the death of Nasser in 1970, Anwar El-Sadat assumed office. Egyptian-Israeli peace treaty of 1979, significant changes in the economic, political and social domains and the introduction of Open Door Policy allowing the entry of private sector in business and national development were the achievements of Sadat’s administration. In October 1981, Vice President Hosny Mubarak succeeded Sadat as President. Mubarak’s economic reforms and activities helped the nation invite foreign investments and march towards economic prosperity.

The end of a golden era

Still, the Mycenaean culture in Hellas continued. It reached its peak during the thirteenth century BC. This period is the historical reality behind the Greek mythology. As always times of prosperity are followed by times of decline and around 1200 BC most Mycenaean structures were destroyed. Hellas was in the same position as Crete had been after the destruction of Cnossus: the population concentrated in small groups. These slowly evolved into the famous city-states.

We can only guess how all these enormous strongholds got destroyed. Some say that the trade with the East stopped, and that overseas settlements were lost because of this. After a while also the motherland had to face the consequences of this. Others believe that it was the work of invaders who travelled from north to south without settling down. Most likely is that a combination of factors as overpopulation, internal wars, famine and epidemics was the true cause. A fascinating era ended with the final destruction of the citadel of Mycenae in 1150, and the unity of Hellas ended with it. The great days of Mycenae and Crete were soon forgotten in the confusion of a time filled with uncertainty. Only in the form of myths, in a twisted way though, was the memory of this heroic and golden era kept alive.

The end of the Minoic civilisation

Around 1500 Thera was hit by an earthquake. The western half of the island was the top of a vulcano which exploded and completely destroyed most of the island. The results were noticeable in a large part of the Mediterranean: the whole Aegean area was hit by a huge tsunami. The Cretan fleet probably got destroyed for the biggest part. The rain of vulcanic ashes covered Crete in a grey layer of 10 centimetres thick, and had a catastrophic effect on the crop for many years. Because of this, and more reasons, many believe that Crete was the legendary Atlantis.

Fifty years later Crete was struck by another disaster. Everywhere on the island the palaces went up in flames. Only Cnossus was saved. The only logical explanation for this is that the Acheans from Hellas had attacked Crete for unknown reasons, and settled themselves down in Cnossus. The explosion of Thera had decreased the strength of Crete so much that they did not find much resistance. This theory gets more convincing as you know that Cnossus is the only place outside Hellas where Linear-B tablets were found. We do not know for how long the Acheans controlled Crete, but somewhere around 1400 BC Cnossus got destroyed. The destructions were so spread out over the island that it seems most likely that Crete was not attacked by a foreign force, but that a revolt against the Mycenaean rulers had take place. Whatever the reason might have been, this was the end of the Minoic culture.

The late Helladic and Minoic periods

Since 1700 BC the Acheans became more and more influenced by Crete. Out of this interaction between the Cretan and Helladic cultures developed a Mycenaean palace culture, which was initially dependent on Cretan models. This new culture was named after the powerful city of Mycenae, the city of the legendary Agamemnon who was one of the leaders of the expedition against Troy. Soon Mycenae, with its palace on a fortified acrois, surrounded by cyclopean walls and its marvellous Gate of Lions, became the dominating power in the Peloponesse.

This period is different from the middle Helladic one, not only because a sudden explosion of wealth took place, but also because throughout Hellas palaces were built. These palaces had a more logical ground-plan than the ones on Crete, and they were in fact huge fortifications unlike the palaces on Crete. The most famous Greek palace of this period was found at Mycenae, but other palaces were found in Pylos, Thebe, Athens and Iolkos. Another difference with the Minoic culture was that the Acheans developed their own script. It was called Linear-B, and was based on the Cretan Linear-A script, but it eventually became a script on its own. Linear-B is a syllable-script, and the language was Greek. The Linear-B tablets which were found do not tell us much about life in the palaces as it was just like Linear-A only used for accountancy.

Of course there were also resemblances. The Acheans were just like the Cretans excellent tradesmen. Their pottery was found in Sicily, Rhodes, Cyprus, Italy, Asia Minor, northern Syria and Milete. In some of these places their influence seems so strong that it is not unlikely that they had permanent strongholds there. However, they could not enter Asia Minor very far as the Hittities were still too strong. That is the reason why their colonisation, if we can even speak of a colonisation, was very limited. Both nations also shared the same form of government: monarchy. The Cretan and Mycenaea monarchies were based on a wide-spread feudal system of lords with a strongly centralised and bureaucratic palace-economy.

Greece history - The early and middle Minoic

The early and middle Minoic period.
Since the beginning of this century excavations on Crete have revealed the remains of an until then completely unknown civilisation. It was a discovery that shocked the whole archaeological world. After all, we knew a lot about the old empires in Egypt and Mesopotamia, but nobody would have thought that a total unknown civilisation would be discovered which could compare with these old empires.

This ancient culture is nowadays known as the Minoic culture, named after the legendary king Minos. It started around 2800 BC, but the roots of the founders of this astonishing civilisation are unknown. It is most likely that they came from the south-east of Asia Minor. On Crete itself they probably mixed with the Libyans who arrived from the south. It is however a fact that their language was not an Indo-European language, so their roots were clearly in a different tribe than those of the early Greeks. The Minoic culture flourished during the first millennium BC, for more than a thousand years.

They exploited the natural resources of Crete by cultivating corn, grapes and olives, and by raising sheep's, goats and ox's. Furthermore they became very handy at pottery and metal-working. This way they created a culture that showed of great civilisation, and which even became a worldpower thanks to the increasing number of inhabitants and wealth. Of major importance for this was the central position of Crete in the Mediterranean. As most people who live on an island they became masters in the construction of ships, and soon their ships reached the coasts of Egypt, Asia Minor, Hellas, Cyprus and Syria. Egyptian paintings of the fifteenth century BC already show Cretan tradesmen. It is not likely that we can speak of a Cretan colonisation of the Mediterranean, the Cretans were first of all tradesmen.

The age of the palaces.
The middle-Minoic era was the time of prosperity for Crete. Cities started to develop in the period between 2200 and 1450 BC, but they were more huge blocks of palaces like the Syrians built them, rather than conglomerations of private houses. Examples of these palaces are Cnossus, Phaistos and Hagia Triada. The palace of Cnossus was spread out over two hectares, and counted so many rooms that it formed the basis for the famous myth about the labyrinth of the Minotaur. It seems that Crete has been a collection of local kingdoms, mostly subsidiary to the dominating Cnossus where the profits of the ruler were collected, managed and distributed. Remarkable are the huge store-rooms with the big pots for products like corn, wine and olive-oil.

The wallpaintings in the palaces have given us an impression how the Cretans lived: the way they dressed, the jewellery they wore, their rituals with bulls, etcetera. Evidently their style of living, or at least in the higher classes, was elegant and sophisticated. The way they worked the metal and their way of pottery shows that they enjoyed life. However, later on demons with the heads of animals become a part of their religion, which was till then centered around a mother goddess and nature. This remarkable change shows a less optimistic view on life and can be explained by events that happened later on.

Of their literature, if they already had any, is nothing left. However, we do have prove that they knew how to write. At first they used symbols, but later on this was replaced by the so-called Linear-A writing. It is called linear as the lines were divided by horizontal lines. Very likely this Linear-A was only used for the accountancy of the stocks in the palaces, as the clay tablets found had enumeration's of goods on them. So the palaces were not only the residences of the kings, but also the political and economical centres of a highly bureaucratic culture. Another sign that everything in the Cretan society evolved around the palaces. Nobody has managed to decipher the Linear-A language, but it is sure that it was not a Greek language.

Life seemed to have been very peaceful most of the time, as the palaces did not have any defences, and the suits of armour that were found date from later periods. The Cretans did not really need any of them, as they controlled the seas. However, during the fifteenth century BC an important event took place. To understand this change we first have to know more about the history of Hellas in the same period.

Greece history The early and middle of Helladic

The early and middle Helladic period.
In the third millennium BC a tribe, which strongly resembled the original inhabitants of Crete, invaded Hellas over the sea from the south-east. They spoke a non-Greek language, and remains of this language can be found in some Greek words, mostly geographical names.

Around 2100 BC Indo-European tribes conquered Hellas. It is not known where these tribes came from, some say the north while others say that they had their roots in Asia Minor. This invasion formed the start for the middle Helladic period. At some places, like Lerna and Tiryns, this meant destruction, but quite often it only meant changes in the culture.

This whole process is known as "the coming of the Greeks", or at least of people who spoke an Indo-European language that mixed with the original language and formed the Greek language. The Acheans, the name used by the later Greeks for these people, did not reach Crete, but Hellas became very much influenced by its powerful neighbour.

Not much is know about this era as it was one with a low cultural level, with at first contrast between the different tribes, which was later on replaced by integration.

Greece history Stone age and early

The Archaic period (800-500)
Corinth became the most advanced city in Hellas around 730 BC, but other cities also became important. Soon the cities became so big that they could no longer support all their inhabitants. Sparta tried to solve the problem by conquering most of the Peloponesse during the second Messenian war, but most cities found daughtercities througout the Mediterranean. The big colonization had begun.

General aspects:

• The emergence of the Polis
• The colonization (750-550)
• Tyranny
• Sparta

Athens Classical period:
fifth century (500-404)In the year 546 the Mede came: the conquest of the Greek colonies in Asia Minor by the Persians proved to be a turning-point, and the conflict with the mighty Persian empire dominates the next fifty years. The final victory for the Greeks was an impuls for the Greek culture, and it flourished as never before. Athens founded its Attic League and evolved the most extreme form of democracy the world has ever known. However, conflicts between Sparta and Athens in their struggle for hegemony form

The stone age.

Unfortunately not much is known about this era. What we know is that large areas of Hellas were already habitated in the paleo- and mesolithicum. The neolithic way of living was most likely introduced by migration from Asia Minor. Wellknown neolithic find-spots are for example Sesklo and Dimini in Thesally, Lerna in Argolis and of course Cnossus at Crete. The oldest of these settlements already existed in 6000 BC. The stoneage was followed by a period were copper became more and more used besides the traditional stone. We know this period as the copper-stone age, or chalcolithicum that comes from the Greek word for copper: chalkos. This phase in history was followed by the actual bronze age. Bronze is an alloy of 90% copper, and 10% tin. It is better for the construction of tools and weaponry as it was harder than copper. Copper was imported from Asia Minor and Cyprus, but the origins of the tin are unknown.

Introduction to Greece History

Greece/Hellas

The history of Hellas starts somewhere in the prehistory, but the Glory of Greece starts with the Mycenaean civilisation which was influenced by a "forgotten" civilisation: the Minoic kingdom. Dark ages follow this golden era, but the pattern for the future is set with the invasion of the Dorians and the rise of the Polis. Several conflicts with the immense Persian empire show the power of city-states. However, internal conflicts for hegemony push Hellas into the hands of Macedon who ends the indepency of Hellas by conquering it. Greek culture is spread out over Asia Minor with Macedonian conquests, but eventually it is Rome who becomes the new worldpower.

Prehistory and Earliest history (till 800BC) The Minoic civilisation flourished during this period and was the cause for the birth of the Mycenaean civilisation on the mainland of Hellas. It was the time of the palace cultures: enormous strongholds on hills. A coalition of these cities formed an expedition and destroyed Troy. Everybody has heard of this as Homer wrote one of the most succesfull books in history about it: the Illiad.

Stone age (6000-3000)
Bronze age (2800-1050)
Early and middle Helladic (2800-1550)
Early and middle Minoic (2800-1550)
Late Helladic and Minoic (1550-1050)
Troy and the Troyan war The Dorian invasion (1100-950)
The Homeric society (1000-800)

Ancient Egyptions Gods and Godesses (6)

Ra
Ra was the god of the sun during dynastic Egypt; the name is thought to have meant "creative power", and as a proper name "Creator", similar to English Christian usage of the term "Creator" to signify the "almighty God." Very early in Egyptian history Ra was identified with Horus, who as a hawk or falon-god represented the loftiness of the skies. Ra is represented either as a hawk-headed man or as a hawk. In order to travel through the waters of Heaven and the Underworld, Ra was depicted as traveling in a boat. During dynastic Egypt Ra's cult center was Annu (Hebrew "On", Greek "Heliopolis", modern-day "Cairo"). In Dynasty V, the first king, Userkaf, was also Ra's high priest, and he added the term Sa-Ra ("Son of Ra") to the titulary of the pharaohs. Ra was father of Shu and Tefnut, grandfather of Nut and Geb, great-grandfather of Osiris, Set, Isis, and Nephthys, and great-great-grandfather to Horus. In later periods (about Dynasty 18 on) Osiris and Isis superceded him in popularity, but he remained Ra netjer-aa neb-pet ("Ra, the great God, Lord of Heaven") whether worshiped in his own right or, in later times, as one aspect of the Lord of the Universe, Amen-Ra.

Ra-Horakhty (Ra-Hoor-Khuit)
"Ra, who is Horus of the Horizons." An appelation of Ra, identifying him with Horus, showing the two as manifestations of the singular Solar Force. The spelling "Ra-Hoor-Khuit" was popularized by Aleister Crowley, first in the Book of the Law (Liber AL vel Legis).

Sati
The goddess of Elephantine, and the consort of Khnum. Together with their companion Anuket, dispenser of cool water. Represented with human head, the crown of Upper Egypt, and the horns of gazelles.

Seker
A god of light, protector of the spirits of the dead passing through the Underworld en route to the afterlife. Seker was worshiped in Memphis as a form of Ptah or as part of the compound deities Ptah-seker or Ptah-seker-ausar. Seker was usually depicted as having the head of a hawk, and shrouded as a mummy, similar to Ptah.

Sekhmet
A lioness-goddess, worshiped in Memphis as the wife of Ptah; created by Ra from the fire of his eyes as a creature of vengeance to punish mankind for his sins; later, became a peaceful protectress of the righteous, closely linked with the benevolent Bast.

Selket (Serqet, Serket)
A scorpion-goddess, shown as a beautiful woman with a scorpion poised on her head; her creature struck death to the wicked, but she was also petitioned to save the lives of innocent people stung by scorpions; she was also viewed as a helper of women in childbirth. She is depicted as binding up demons that would otherwise threaten Ra, and she sent seven of her scorpions to protect Isis from Set. She was the protectress of Qebehsenuf, the son of Horus who guarded the intestines of the deceased. She was made famous by her statue from Tutankhamen's tomb, which was part of the collection which toured America in the 1970's.

Serapis
A Ptolemaic period god, devised by the Greeks from Osiris and Apis. Supposedly the consort of Isis, god of the afterlife and fertility. Also physician and helper of distressed worshippers. Never obtained much following from the native Egyptian population. His cult center was Alexandria.

Set (Seth)
In earliest times, Set was the patron deity of Lower (Northern) Egypt, and represented the fierce storms of the desert whom the Lower Egyptians sought to appease. However, when Upper Egypt conquered Lower Egypt and ushered in the First Dynasty, Set became known as the evil enemy of Horus (Upper Egypt's dynastic god). Set was the brother of Osiris, Isis, and Nephthys, and husband of the latter; according to some versions of the myths he is also father of Anubis. Set is best known for murdering his brother and attempting to kill his nephew Horus; Horus, however, managed to survive and grew up to avenge his father's death by establishing his rule over all Egypt, castrating Set, and casting him out into the lonely desert for all time. In the 19th Dynasty there began a resurgence of respect for Set, and he was seen as a great god once more, the god who benevolently restrained the forces of the desert and protected Egypt from foreigners.

Shu
The god of the atmosphere and of dry winds, son of Ra, brother and husband of Tefnut, father of Geb and Nut. Represented in hieroglyphs by an ostrich feather (similar to Maat's), which he is usually shown wearing on his head. He is generally shown standing on the recumbent Geb, holding aloft his daughter Nut, separating the two. The name "Shu" is probably related to the root shu meaning "dry, empty." Shu also seems to be a personification of the sun's light. Shu and Tefnut were also said to be but two halves of one soul, perhaps the earliest recorded example of "soulmates".

Sobek
The crocodile-god, worshipped at the city of Arsinoe, called Crocodilopolis by the Greeks. Sobek was worshipped to appease him and his animals. According to some evidence, Sobek was considered a fourfold deity who represented the four elemental gods (Ra of fire, Shu of air, Geb of earth, and Osiris of water). In the Book of the Dead, Sobek assists in the birth of Horus; he fetches Isis and Nephthys to protect the deceased; and he aids in the destruction of Set.

Sothis
Feminine Egyptian name for the star Sirius, which very early meshed with Isis (being the consort of Sahu-Osiris, which was Orion). Also associated with Hathor.

Tefnut
The goddess of moisture and clouds, daughter of Ra, sister and wife of Shu, mother of Geb and Nut. Depicted as a woman with the head of a lioness, which was her sacred animal. The name "Tefnut" probably derives from the root teftef, signifying "to spit, to moisten" and the root nu meaning "waters, sky".

Thoth (Tahuti)
The god of wisdom, Thoth was said to be self-created at the beginning of time, along with his consort Maat (truth), or perhaps created by Ra. At Hermopolis it was said that from Thoth were produced eight children, of which the most important was Amen, "the hidden one", who was worshiped in Thebes as the Lord of the Universe. The name "Thoth" is the Greek corruption of the original Egyptian Tahuti. Thoth was depicted as a man with the head of an ibis bird, and carried a pen and scrolls upon which he recorded all things. He was shown as attendant in almost all major scenes involving the gods, but especially at the judgement of the deceased. He served as the messenger of the gods, and was thus equated by the Greeks with Hermes. Thoth served in Osirian myths as the vizier (chief advisor and minister) of Osiris. He, like Khons, is a god of the moon, and is also the god of time, magic, and writing. He was considered the inventor of the hieroglyphs.

Thoueris (Ta-urt)
A hippopotamus goddess, responsible for fertility and protecting women in childbirth. Partner of Bes.